E, we made use of phylogenetic info to identify phylogenetic correlations amongst different ecological and defensive traits in an effort to estimate the relative value of avian versus invertebrate predation. Final results: The mapping of 12 ecological and defensive traits on phylogenetic trees inferred from DNA sequences reveals the discrete distribution of quick N-Acetyl-Calicheamicin �� bleeding that occurs, among other individuals, within the genus Athalia plus the tribe Phymatocerini. By contrast, occurrence of ventral glands is restricted to the monophyletic subfamily Nematinae, that are in no way uncomplicated bleeders. Both techniques are in particular effective towards insectivorous insects which include ants, although only Nematinae species are often brightly colored and really gregarious. Among ten tests of phylogenetic correlation among traits, only a few are significant. None of these requires morphological traits enhancing visual signals, but simple bleeding is linked using the absence of defensive body movements and with toxins occurring within the host plant. Simple bleeding functions by means of a combination of attributes, which can be corroborated by an independent contrasts test indicating a statistically considerable unfavorable correlation in between species-level integument mechanical resistance and hemolymph feeding deterrence against ants. Conclusions: Our analyses proof a repeated occurrence of straightforward bleeding, and no phylogenetic correlation such as certain visual signals is important. We conclude that the evolution of chemically-based defenses in tenthredinids may have been driven by invertebrate as significantly as by avian predation. The clear-cut visual signaling frequently encountered inside the Nematinae could be linked to differential trends of habitat use by prey and predators. Additional studies on (prey) insect groups must include visual signals as well as other traits, as well as a number of groups of organic enemies, to far better interpret their relative significance and to refine our understanding of insect chemical defenses. PubMed ID:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21338877 Key phrases: Insects, Tenthredinidae larvae, Visual signals, Deterrent hemolymph, Volatiles, Chemical defense, Predatory birds and ants, Predator rey interactions, Diversity, Evolution Correspondence: jean-luc.boevenaturalsciences.be 1 Department of Entomology, Royal Belgian Institute of All-natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium Complete list of author information is obtainable in the end of your article2013 Boevet al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access post distributed below the terms of your Inventive Commons Attribution License (http:creativecommons.orglicensesby2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original function is correctly cited.Boevet al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2013, 13:198 http:www.biomedcentral.com1471-214813Page two ofBackground Insects live below the Sword of Damocles, considering the fact that many vertebrate and invertebrate predators attempt to consume them [1,2]. Predation is for that reason a principal driving force inside the evolution of insects, which survive biotic attacks amongst other folks by chemically based defense methods, and an intriguing interspecific diversity in defense techniques is observed (e.g., [3-5]). A specific defense technique varies throughout ontogeny, and relates to an adapted phenology, behavior, morphology, physiology, andor chemistry [6,7]. Defense techniques of living organisms are shaped by evolutionary conservatism and ecological variables, but handful of research have attempted to estimate the relative import.